PROGRAM  OF  TRAINING  IN 
GAS  DEFENSE 


FOR 


DIVISIONAL  ANTI-GAS  SCHOOLS 


EDITED  AT 

ARMY  WAR  COLLEGE 


OCTOBER,  1917 


WASHINGTON    * 
GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE 

•  1917 


T  »       Tf 

a 3 


WAR  DEPARTMENT. 
Document  No.  686. 
o/  T/ie  Adjutant  General. 


WAR  DEPARTMENT. 
WASHINGTON,  October  23,  1917. 

The  following  pamphlet,  "  Program  of  Training  in  Gas  De- 
fense for  Divisional   Anti-Gas   Schools,"   is  published   for  the 
information  of  all  concerned. 
[062.1,  A.  G.  O.] 

BY  OEDER  OF  THE  SECRETARY  OF  WAR  : 

TASKER  H.  BLISS, 

General,  Chief  of  Staff. 
OFFICIAL  : 

H.  P.  MCCAIN, 

The  Adjutant  General. 
(3) 


664369 


PROGRAM   OF  TRAINING   IN   GAS   DEFENSE   FOR 
DIVISIONAL  ANTI-GAS  SCHOOLS. 


45  minutes. 


hours. 


SYLLABUS    CF    TRAINING'.  ;        '  ',      v 

First  day : 

Theoretical. — Lecture  on  the  general  principles  of  gas  war- 
fare— 

(a)  History  of  the  use  of  gas. 
(&)  Gas-cloud  attacks. 

(c)  Gas-shell  attacks. 

(d)  Various  kinds  of  gas  used. 

(e)  The  effect  of  gas. 

(/)    Methods  of  protection. 
Practical — 

(a)  The  mechanism  of  the  mask. 

(I))  Gas    mask    drill    (individually    and    in 
squads). 

(c)   Inspection  of  masks. 
Second  day: 

Theoretical. — Lecture  on  signs  of  approaching  gas — 

(a)  Three  signs  of  cloud  gas. 

(&)  Wind  observations. 

(c)  Precautions  to  be  taken  during  wind- 

dangerous  period. 

(d)  Means  of  giving  the  alarm  (cloud  gas). 

(e)  Action  to  be  taken  in  trenches. 
(/)   Signs  of  gas-shell  attack. 

(#)  Means  of  giving  the  alarm  (gas  shells). 
(h)  Rules  to  be  observed  during  any  gas 

attack. 
Practical— 

(a)  Repeat  gas-mask  drill  one-half  hour. 
(&)   Exercise  in  gas  house  with  lachryma- 
tory gas. 

(5) 


45  minutes. 


hours. 


6 

Third  day : 

Theoretical. — Lecture  on  action  to  be  taken  after  gas  at- 
tack— 

(a)  Clearing  of  shelter,  trenches,  and  shell] 

craters  (gas  fans  and  fire  pots). 
(&)  Cleaning  of  arms  and  ammunition. 
(c)   Protection  of  dug-outs  and  all  arms. 
Practical — 

(a)   Repeat  gas-mask  drill  one-fourth  hour.   1 

(V>)    Exorcise  in  gsis  house  with  chlorine  gas  m  hours. 

one  hour. 
Fourth  day: 

Theoretical. — Lecture  on  the  effect  of  gases  and  treatment 

of  gas  cases,  30  minutes. 
Practical — 

(a)   Gas-cloud  attack. 

(?>)   Use  of  gas  fan  and  fire  pot  in  clearing 


trenches. 


hours. 


(c)  Demonstrate  protection  afforded  in  dug- 
outs by  means  of  wet  blankets. 
Fifth  day : 

Theoretical. — Lecture    on    organization    of   gas    service    in 
foreign  forces — 

(a)  Anti-gas    duties    within    an    Infantry  1 

regiment. 

(6)   Standing  orders, 
(c)  Collection  of  gas  samples. 
Practical — 

(a)  Repeat  gas-mask  drill. 

(?>)  Exercise  in  gas-shell  attacks  (lachrymatory  gas), 

li  hours.     (Explosion  of  grenades.) 
Sixth  day : 

For  officers — 

Written    quiz    covering    instruction    given    during    the 

week. 
For  enlisted  men — 

Verbal  quiz  and  general  exercises  of  the  course. 
Upon  completion  of  this  training  all  troops  should  be  given 
one  hour  mask  drill  per  week  under  their  platoon  commanders. 
This  drill  should  include  the  mask  drill  proper  and  other  drills 
and  exercises  while  wearing  the  mask. 


r 

LECTURE  NO.  1  (first  day). 

The  use  of  gas,  like  many  of  the  other  weapons  now  in  com- 
mon use  in  the  armies  of  Europe,  such  as  the  catapult,  flame 
projector,  trench  knife,  and  sling,  is  an  inheritance  from  the 
early  ages  amplified,  improved,  and  made  more  destructive  by 
the  aid  of  modern  science. 

The  first  recorded  effort  to  overcome  the  enemy  by  the  genera- 
tion of  poisonous  and  suffocating  gases  seems  to  have  been  in  the 
wars  of  the  Athenians  and  Spartans  (431  to  404  B.  C.),  when, 
in  besieging  the  cities  of  Platea  and  Belium,  the  Spartans  satur- 
ated wood  with  pitch  and  sulphur  and  burnt  it  under  the  walls 
of  those  cities  in  the  hopes  of  choking  the  defenders  and  render- 
ing the  assault  less  difficult.  They  also  melted  pitch,  charcoal, 
and  sulphur  together  in  cauldrons  and  blew  the  fumes  over  the 
defenders'  lines  by  means  of  bellows. 

"  Greek  fire  "  was  used  by  the  Byzantine  Greeks  under  Con- 
stantine  about  673  A.  D.,  to  destroy  the  Saracens,  and  Saracens 
in  turn  used  it  as  a  weapon  of  defense  against  the  Christians 
during  the  Crusades.  This  Greek  fire  had  the  double  advantage 
of  being  not  only  inflammable  but  also  generating  during  the 
process  of  combustion  clouds  of  dense,  blinding  smoke  and  gas 
of  an  asphyxiating  character.  (This  gas — sulphurous  dioxide — 
is  one  of  the  gases  used  to-day.)  Its  chemical  composition  was 
supposed  to  be  a  mixture  of  quicklime,  petroleum,  sulphur,  and 
such  other  inflammable  substance  as  pitch,  resin,  etc.  Upon  the 
addition  of  water  the  slaking  process  which  the  quicklime  under- 
went generated  enough  heat  to  ignite  the  petroleum,  which  in 
turn  ignited  the  resin,  pitch,  and  sulphur.  This  flaming  mixture 
was  delivered  against  the  enemy  by  means  of  fantastic  syringes 
in  the  shape  of  dragons  and  other  monsters  with  wide  jaws. 

The  first  use  of  gas  in  modern  warfare  was  in  an  attack  April 
22, 1915,  by  the  Germans. at  Ypres  on  a  sector  of  trench  where  the 
French  and  Canadians  met.  The  surprise  was  complete  and  the 
number  of  casualties  enormous.  On  April  26  gas  was  liberated 
against  two  French  battalions  which  were  making  an  assault, 
and  broke  down  the  assault  completely.  Repeated  gas  attacks 
followed,  and  it  soon  became  recognized  that  gas  was  an  ac- 
cepted weapon  in  modern  warfare.  These  first  gas  attacks  wTere 
of  the  gas-cloud  type,  but  soon  gas  shells  began  to  make  their 
appearance  and  now  gas  shells  are  in  use  in  all  armies  and  are 
one  of  the  most  important  weapons  in  modern  warfare. 


GAS-CLOUD  ATTACK. 

The  gas-cloud  attack  is  brought  about  by  the  liberation  of  gas 
from  metal  containers  buried  under  the  parapets  of  the  front-line 
trenches.  Tubes  from  these  containers  provided  with  a  stop- 
cock attachment,  are  carried  up  over  the  parapet  and  through 
them  the  gas  is  liberated.  These  containers  are  usually  placed 
in  batteries  of  three  or  four  at  intervals  of  about  30  yards  apart. 
The  gas  in  them  is  in  a  liquid  state,  but  upon  being  released  by 
turning  on  the  stop  cock  it  volatilizes  rapidly  and  escapes  in  the 
form  of  a  dense  vapor.  This  escape  of  the  confined  gas  is  accom- 
panied by  a  low  whistling  sound  which  is  frequently  the  only 
warning  the  opposing  side  has  of  the  coming  attack.  The  gases 
used  in  cloud  attacks  are  heavier  than  air  and  when  released 
under  proper  atmospheric  conditions  move — or,  rather,  appear  to 
roll — along  the  ground,  usually  in  the  form  of  a  dense  greenish- 
yellow  cloud,  toward  the  lines  of  troops  to  be  attacked,  and  when 
it  reaches  the  trenches  it  settles  down  into  all  parts  of  them, 
penetrating  the  dugouts  and  bomb  proofs  and  remaining  some- 
times for  several  days. 

The  success  of  the  "  gas  cloud  "  is  dependent  on  the  atmos- 
pheric conditions.  A  calm  night  or  day,  with  a  gentle  wind 
blowing  in  the  right  direction,  is  essential.  A  strong  wind  dis- 
tributes the  gas  too  quickly  and  diminishes  its  concentration, 
and  a  variable  wind  is  not  to  be  depended  on.  Gas  attacks  have 
been  made  with  wind  velocities  varying  from  3  to  15  miles  per 
hour,  i.  e.,  from  1£  to  7£  yards  per  second.  A  wind  between 
4  and  8  miles  is  the  most  favorable.  With  such  a  wind  gas 
would  reach  trenches  100  yards  away  in  22  seconds.  Gentle 
rain  has  no  effect  on  the  gas  but  a  heavy  rain  washes  it  down. 
Fogs  have  but  little  effect  and  may  be  taken  advantage  of  to 
conceal  the  approach  of  a  gas  cloud. 

While  the  gas  cloud  form  of  attack,  if  successful,  can  pro- 
duce a  number  of  casualties,  its  operjation  is  uncertain  and  its 
approach  can  be  anticipated  if  proper  watchfulness  is  main- 
tained. Efficient  measures  can  be  taken  by  trained  troops  to 
nullify  its  effects,  and  its  military  value  therefore  is  probably 
not  so  great  as  when  it  is  used  in  shells,  bombs,  hand  gre- 
nades, etc. 

GAS-SHELL  ATTACK. 

Gas  used  in  shells  has  a  much  more  definite  military  value 
than  gas  used  in  clouds.  The  gas  shell  has,  in  fact,  become 


9 

one  of  the  most  important  weapons  in  modern  warfare  and  at 
present  20  per  cent  of  all  shells  used  on  the  western  front  are 
gas  shells. 

They  fulfill  a  double  purpose;  they  are  excellent  in  forming 
a  barrage  to  prevent  the  bringing  up  of  supplies  and  reinforce- 
ments, and  they  are  most  excellent  in  silencing  artillery  posi- 
tions. Their  method  of  employment,  as  described  to  me  recently 
by  a  French  officer,  was  like  this :  A  continued  barrage  fire  was 
kept  up  behind  a  certain  artillery  position  for  24  hours.  Then 
a  cloud  fire  was  kept  up  on  the  artillery  position  itself  for  12 
hours.  The  infantry  assault  was  then  made  and  there  was  no 
fire  at  all  from  the  artillery  position.  When  this  was  taken, 
it  was  found  that  most,  of  the  men  there  were  dead  and  those 
that  survived  were  too  weak  to  work  the  guns.  The  protective 
power  of  their  masks  had  been  exhausted  by  the  long  exposure 
to  gas. 

Gas  is  used  in  shells  of  both  heavy  and  light  field  howitzers. 
The  5.9  Minemverfer  is  the  shell  most  used  by  the  Germans. 

These  shells  hold  about  7  liters  of  a  gas-producing  liquid. 
They  have  a  short  ogival  head  and  a  long  cylindrical  body  of 
thin  steel,  about  one-fourth  of  an  inch  thick ;  closely  fitted 
against  the  inside  walls  is  a  cylinder  of  sheet  lead  about  one- 
eighth  inch  thick,  which  is  filled  with  the  gas-producing  liquid 
and  then  tightly  soldered.  This  load  container  fills  nearly  the 
whole  cylindrical  portion  of  the  shell ;  just  above  it,  but  not 
resting  on  it,  is  the  explosive,  and  above  this,  on  the  point  of 
the  shell,  is  a  combination  of  time  and  impact  fuze.  The  effect 
of  the  charge  upon  exploding  is  to  tear  open  the  head  of  the 
shell  and  the  top  of  the  lead  container  so  as  to  allow  the  liquid 
to  spill  out  and  liberate  the  gas. 

Hand  grenades  of  various  kinds,  made  of  both  glass  and  iron, 
and  containing  a  quantity  of  gas-producing  liquid,  are  used  in 
trench  warfare,  and  iron  bombs,  with  a  bursting  charge  of  black 
powder  and  containing  gas  liquid,  are  also  used  in  trench 
mortars. 

Unlike  cloud  gas,  gas  shells  can  be  used  in  wind  blowing  in 
any  direction.  The  strength  of  the  wind,  however,  has  consid- 
erable influence  on  the  effective  use  of  the  shells.  A  wind  of 
7  miles  per  hour  or  less  is  as  high  a  wind  as  is  practical  for 
their  effective  use. 

21168°— 17 2 


10 

THE  VARIOUS  KINDS  OF  GASES. 

(a)  Lachrymatory  gases  (cause  an  intense  inflammation  of 
the  eyes  with  temporary  inability  to  see). 

(&)  Asphyxiating  gases  (extremely  severe  in  their  action, 
causing  either  rapid  death  or  lingering  death  with  much  suf- 
fering). 

(c)  Suffocating  gases  (causing  death  by  spasm  of  the  glot- 
tis; they  are  usually  combined  with  lachrymatory  gases). 

(d!)  Paralysant  gases  (causing  instant  death  when  in  suffi- 
cient concentration). 

The  three  latter  classes  are  known  as  lethal  gases.  The 
asphyxiating  gases,  because  of  their  weight,  are  the  ones  used 
in  cloud-gas  attack.  The  other  gases,  and  the  asphyxiating 
gases,  also  are  used  in  shells. 

A  great  variety  of  acids  may  be  used  for  the  production  of 
gases,  and  chemists  in  all  armies  are  constantly  experimenting 
with  a  view  to  perfecting  new  and  more  potent  combinations. 
The  ones  most  commonly  used  now,  however,  for  the  suffocat- 
ing and  lachrymatory  group  are  combinations  of  benzol  and 
acetone  with  chlorine  and  bromine,  such  as  cloracetone,  bro- 
macetone,  and  benzyl  bromide.  The  principal  acids  used  for 
asphyxiating  purposes  are  chlorine,  bromine,  and  phosgene. 
These  acids  are  abundantly  produced  in  commercial  processes  of 
manufacture,  are  easily  obtained,  and  answer  every  purpose. 
They  are,  however,  with  the  exception  of  phosgene  easily  neu- 
tralized by  alkalies.  In  addition  to  these  commoner  acids  many 
other  acids  have  been  used;  some  of  them  are  hydrogene  sul- 
phide, sulphurous  anhydride,  various  nitrous  vapors,  formol, 
arsene,  and  prussic  acid. 

THE  EFFECT  OF  GASES. 

Certain  gases,  such  as  prussic  acid,  produce  instant  death  by 
paralyzing  the  central  nervous  system,  but  the  majority  of  the 
gases  have  a  special  affinity  for  the  mucous  membranes,  and 
their  systemic  effect  depends  on  the  amount  of  damage  they  do 
to  those  tissues.  The  lachrymatory  gases  have  a  special  action 
on  the  membranes  of  the  eye  and  upper  air  passages,  and  their 
effects  though  severe  while  they  last  are  as  a  rule  temporary. 
They  cause  a  severe  smarting  pain  and  running  of  the  eyes 
(tearing)  and  soon  the  lining  of  the  eyelids  become  so  swollen 
that  vision  is  impossible.  At  the  same  time  there  is  a  dryness. 


11 

burning,  and  smarting  of  the  nose  and  throat,  with  coughing 
and  sometimes  vomiting.  In  three  or  four  hours  those  symp- 
toms begin  to  disappear^  and  gradually  the  soldier  recovers. 

The  asphyxiating  and  suffocating  gases  are  far  more  severe  in 
their  action.  Their  potency  can  be  realized  when  it  is  known 
that  a  dilution  of  1: +1,000  is  fatal  with  chlorine  and  bromine, 
and  a  1 :  +25,000  is  fatal  with  phosgene.  A  dilution  of  1 :— 100,000 
or  more  has  a  marked  effect.  These  gases  act  to  a  less  degree 
on  the  membranes  of  the  eye  than  the  lachrymatory  gases,  but 
their  action  is  particularly  virulent  on  the  membranes  of  the 
respiratory  tract,  which  they  cause  to  swell  rapidly  and  finally 
destroy.  The  result  is  oedema  of  the  lungs,  accompanied  by 
persistent  coughing  and  spitting  of  blood,  then  great  difficulty 
in  breathing,  the  soldier  becoming  cyanosed  and  struggling  for 
breath.  Death  may  be  almost  instantaneous,  or  it  may  be  post- 
poned for  several  days,  the  sufferer  in  the  meantime  not  being 
able  to  eat  anything  and  undergoing  great  agony.  Many  of  the 
cases  in  which  recovery  does  take  place  develop  later  a  chronic 
disease  of  the  lungs. 

METHOD  OF  PROTECTION. 

The  deadly  character  of  gas  attacks  can  be  almost  entirely 
obviated  if  the  proper  measures  of  protection  are  known  and 
strictly  enforced. 

A  perfect  familiarity  with  the  gas  mask  and  its  prompt  ap- 
plication is  the  only  certain  means  of  defense.  The  development 
of  the  gas  mask  has  kept  pace  with  the  development  of  gas  as 
a  weapon.  From  the  first  the  principle  of  the  mask  has  been 
to  provide  a  filter  through  which  the  inspired  air  must  pass, 
this  filter  to  be  made  of  chemicals  which  have  a  neutralizing 
effect  on  the  gases.  At  first  the  mask  was  simply  a  pad  of 
cotton  or  gauze  soaked  in  a  soda  solution,  and  this  afforded 
fairly  good  protection  against  chlorine.  With  the  introduction 
of  the  lachrymatory  and  more  poisonous  gases,  however,  the  sim- 
ple pad  proved  inadequate  and  new  types  of  mask  were  con- 
stantly appearing. 

Three  types  are  now  in  use  in  the  European  armies.  The  box 
respirator,  the  tube  helmet,  and  the  M.  2  French  mask.  Of  these, 
"he  box  respirator  is  by  far  the  best.  While  cumbersome  in  ap- 
pearance, it  is  really  the  most  comfortable,  and  has  the  longest 
life  against  the  greatest  variety  of  gases. 


12 
PRACTICAL  INSTRUCTION  (First  Day). 

1.  Explain  the  mechanism  of  the  mask.  Point  out  the  way  in 
which  the  inspired  air  passes  through  the  bottom  of  the  canister, 
tlie  connecting  tube,  and  the  mouthpiece.  Dwell  on  the  fact 
that  air  reaching  the  lungs  in  any  other  way  is  poisonous  when 
gas  is  present.  For  this  reason  the  nose  clip  must  be  worn. 
Explain  how  the  expired  air  escapes  through  the  flutter  valve. 

Impress  upon  the  soldier  that  the  mask  is  of  the  utmost  im- 
portance, and  any  failure  to  keep  it  in  good  condition  and  adjust 
it  promptly  and  properly  when  the  gas  alarm  is  given  may  cost 
him  his  life. 

GAS-MASK  DRILL. 

The  detachment  should  be  in  line  with  the  masks  in  the  carry 
position.  The  haversack  slung  at  the  right  side,  sling  passing 
over  the  right  shoulder,  flap  buttons  toward  the  body. 

Practice  "A." — Adjustment  of  the  respirator  box  in  the 
"Alert "  position. 

On  the  command  "  Gas  alert "  hang  the  haversack  around  the 
neck  with  the  press  buttons  next  the  body.  With  the  right  hand 
seize  the  satchel  by  the  leather  tab,  with  the  left  hand  seize  the 
sling  by  the  brass  button,  and  clip  this  into  the  leather  tab. 
Undo  the  press  buttons  closing  the  flap,  tuck  in  the  slack  of  the 
sling  into  the  left-hand  compartment,  so  that  it  lies  under  the 
mask. 

The  length  of  w-hipcord  will  then  be  withdrawn  from  the  right- 
hand  compartment,  passed  through  the  ring  on  the  right  of  the 
satchel,  and  carried  around  the  waist  to  the  ring  on  the  left, 
where  it  is  fastened.  The  press  button  closing  the  flap  will  be 
left  undone,  but  the  flap  will  be  put  in  condition  to  keep  the 
respirator  from  wet. 

Practice  "B" — Drill  by  numbers  to  obtain  correct  adjustment 
of  the  mask. 

1.  On  the  command  "  One  "  press  down  both  thumbs  between 
the  satchel  and  the  body  and  open  the  satchel  flap.     Immediately 
seize  the  mask  with  the  right  hand,  the  metal  breathing  tube  just 
outside  the  mask  being  in  the  palm  of  the  hand,  and  the  thumb 
and  first  finger  grasping  the  wire  frame  of  the  nose  clip. 

2.  On  the  command  "  Two  "  bring  the  mask  smartly  out  of  the 
satchel  and  hold  it  in  both  hands  with  all  the.  fingers  outside 
around  the  binding,  and  the  two  thumbs  inside,  pointing  toward 


13 

and  upward  under  the  elastic.    At  the  same  time  throw  the  chin 
well  forward  ready  to  enter  the  mask  opposite  the  nose  clip. 

3.  On  the  command  "  Three  "  bring  the  mask  forward,  digging 
the  chin  into  it,  and  with  the  same  mot:on  bring  the  elastic  bands 
back  over  the  crown  of  the  head  to  the  full  extent  of  the  retaining 
tape,  using  the  thumbs. 

4.  On  the  command  "  Four  "  seize  the  metal  breathing  tube 
outside  the  mask,  thumb  on  the  right,  fingers  on  the  left — all 
pointing  toward  the  face.     Push  the  rubber  mouthpiece  well 
into  the  mouth  and  pull  it  forward  until  the  rim  of  the  mouth- 
piece lies  between  the  teeth  and  the  lips  and  the  two  rubber  grips 
are  held  by  the  teeth. 

5.  On  the  command  "  Five  "  adjust  the  nose  clip  to  the  nose, 
using  the  thumb  and  first  three  fingers  of  the  right  hand.    Come 
smartly  to  attention. 

At  the  completion  of  this  exercise,  the  instructor  inspects  each 
man  and  corrects  any  faults  of  adjustments.  It  is  very  impor- 
tant to  see  that  the  mask  fits  the  face  properly  and  that  the 
length  of  the  sling  in  the  alert  position  is  such  that  the  man 
can  move  his  head  about  freely  without  exerting  traction  on  the 
rubber  tube. 

NOTE. —  (a)  If,  after  wearing  for  a  long  time,  the  pressure  of 
the  nose  clip  becomes  unbearable,  it  may  be  relieved  for  a  few 
moments  by  taking  off  the  pressure  without  removing  clip. 

(.&)  Removing  masks. — It  must  be  seen  that  when  masks  are 
removed  this  is  done  without  strain  on  the  face  piece  or  elastic. 
On  the  command  "  Take  off  masks  "  insert  the  fingers  of  the  left 
hand  under  the  mask  at  the  chin,  bend  the  head  forward,  at  the 
same  time  removing  the  mask  with  an  upward  motion  of  the 
left  hand. 

(c)  After  all  drills  the  mouthpiece  must  be  disinfected,  the 
mask  wiped  dry,  folded  correctly,  and  put  away  in  such  a  way 
that  the  rubber  valve  is  not  bent. 

Repeat  practices  "A"  and  "  B  "  several  times  and  note  progress 
made.  Then  start  "  judging  the  time."  With  the  mask  in  the 
"  Gas  alert "  position  the  command  "  Gas  "  will  be  given  and 
each  man  will  proceed  to  adjust  his  mask  in  the  manner  pre- 
scribed in  practice  "  B."  When  adjusted  he  will  take  one  step 
forward  and  his  time  will  be  recorded.  All  men  must  be  drilled 
until  they  can  make  a  perfect  adjustment  in  six  seconds. 

Practice  "  C."— The  purpose  of  practice  "  C  "  is  to  teach  the 
men  the  procedure  to  be  gone  through  when  a  sudden  gas-shell 
attack  is  made. 


On  the  command  "  Gas  shells  "  pass  the  left  arm  back  through 
the  sling,  throwing  the  haversack  to  the  front  of  the  body,  under 
the  flap  buttons  and  adjust  the  mask  as  in  Practice  "  B,"  allow- 
ing the  haversack  to  hang  by  the  rubber  tube.  While  doing  this, 
men  must  be  taught  to  hold  their  breath.  After  the  mask  is  ad- 
justed, breathing  can  be  resumed  and  the  haversack  fastened  in 
the  alert  position.  The  complete  adjustment  should  be  made  in 
seven  seconds. 

At  the  end  of  every  drill  period  entry  will  be  made  on  the 
record  card  in  the  haversack  of  the  approximate  time  of  actual 
breathing  through  the  respirator.  This  record  must  be  kept 
accurately,  so  that  the  life  of  the  mask  can  be  ascertained. 

Repeat  Practices  "A,"  "  B,"  and  "  C  "  a  few  times. 

Practice  "  D." — Drill  to  teach  cleaning  of  eyepieces. 

On  the  command  "  Clean  eyepieces  "  the  right  eyepiece  will  be 
gripped  between  the  thumb  and  first  finger  of  the  left  hand. 
The  first  finger  of  the  right  hand  will  then  be  pushed  gently  into 
the  flap  of  the  mask  behind  the  right  eyepiece,  which  wrill  be 
cleaned  with  a  gentle  circular  motion. 

The  left  eyepiece  will  be  cleaned  in  a  similar  way. 

Practice  "  E" — Drill  to  teach  method  of  giving  orders. 

It  is  first  explained  to  a  squad  that  the  nose  clip  must  not  be 
removed  to  talk,  and  that  before  each  sentence  is  spoken  a  long 
breath  must  be  taken  and  the  mouthpiece  removed  sideways 
from  the  mouth  by  turning  the  metal  tube  outside  the  mask  to 
one  side.  After  speaking  the  mouthpiece  is  replaced. 

The  squad  should  then  be  numbered  off,  extended  to  four 
paces,  and  orders  passed  along  the  line. 

Officers  and  noncommissioned  officers  wrill  be  specially  drilled 
in  Practice  "  E." 

Long  orders  must  be  broken  into  short  phrases  so  that  each 
part  may  be  shouted  out  before  a  new  breath  must  be  taken. 

Practice  "  F." — Drill  to  teach  method  of  clearing  mask  from 
gas  which  may  have  leaked  in  and  is  affecting  the  eyes. 

On  the  command  "  Empty  masks,"  press  the  mask  close  to  the 
face,  forcing  out  foul  air  around  the  sides,  and  then  fill  again 
writh  air  from  the  lungs  by  blowing  out  round  the  mouthpiece. 

Practice  "  G." — Drill  to  teach  method  of  testing  whether  trench 
or  dugout  is  free  from  gas. 

On  the  command  "  Test  for  gas,"  with  right  hand  open  the 
face  piece  away  from  the  right  cheek,  then  loosen  the  nose  clip 
on  the  nose  and  smell  gently  (do  not  take  a  breath).  If  gas  is 


15 

smelt,    the    nose   clip    and    mask    are    replaced.    Then    as    in 
Drill  "  F." 

LECTURE  NO.  2  (Second  Day). 

WARNING. 

The  gas  mask  if  properly  and  promptly  adjusted  is  a  sure  pre- 
vention of  gas  casualties.  Ample  warning  therefore  is  essential 
in  order  that  men  may  have  time  to  adjust  their  masks.  Every 
means  must  be  employed  to  detect  an  impending  gas  attack  and 
spread  the  alarm  at  the  first  sign  of  its  approach. 

The  gas-cloud  attack  requires  a  good  deal  of  preparation  on 
the  enemy's  part,  in  the  matter  of  bringing  up  the  containers 
and  digging  them  in  under  the  trenches,  and  advance  informa- 
tion of  an  attack  can  be  frequently  obtained  by  aeroplane  recon- 
naissance and  constant  observation  of  the  enemy's  trenches  by 
outpost  sentries.  These  two  sources  of  information  should  be 
continuously  employed.  The  only  certain  signs  of  an  actual 
attack,  however,  are : 

(a)  The  whistling  sound  of  the  gas  as  it  escapes  from  the 
containers. 

( b )  The  smell  of  the  gas. 

(c)  The  appearance  of  a  cloud  of  any  color  over  the  enemy's 
trenches. 

With  all  gases  at  night  and  with  certain  forms  of  gas  in  the 
daytime  the  cloud  is  not  visible  at  a  distance. 

Recently  an  English  officer  told  me  that  one  of  the  earliest 
signs  of  a  gas  attack  was  a  loss  of  taste  in  a  cigarette  or  pipe ; 
that  he  had  frequently  seen  soldiers  look  suddenly  at  the  cigar- 
ette they  were  smoking  and  then  with  a  startled  face  say  "  gas," 
and  begin  to  put  on  their  masks. 

WIND  OBSERVATION. 

The  wind  playing  so  important  a  part  in  gas-cloud  attacks,  a 
meteorological  service  is  established  on  all  fronts.  This  organi- 
zation reports  to  headquarters  of  corps  or  divisions  whenever  the 
wind  is  in  a  dangerous  quarter,  showing  the  direction  and 
strength  of  the  wind.  As  a  result  of  these  reports  "  Wind  dan- 
gerous "  is  announced  from  these  headquarters. 

These  general  reports,  however,  refer  to  large  areas,  and  on 
isolated  stretches  of  front  conditions  of  terrain  or  the  align- 


16 

ment  of  trenches  may  permit  of  local  air  currents  which  are 
favorable  to  the  enemy.  For  this  reason  company  commanders 
are  responsible  that  wind  observations  are  made  in  their  com- 
pany front  every  three  hours  or  oftener  if  the  wind  is  in  or  ap- 
proaching a  dangerous  quarter,  and  the  reports  are  forwarded 
through  the  regimental  commander  to  brigade  headquarters. 

In  order  to  make  these  reports  in  each  company  a  simple  wind 
vane,  bearing  a  Beaufort  flag,  is  set  up.  The  vane  must  have 
as  little  friction  as  possible,  so  that  a  wind  of  under  2  miles  per 
hour  will  turn  it. 

It  must  be  set  up  sufficiently  high  to  get  a  true  observation 
(e.  g.,  18  inches  above  the  top  of  the  dugout),  and  it  must  also 


North. 


N.N.W. 


South. 

be  correctly  oriented.  An  easy  way  to  do  this  is  to  have  two 
sticks  below  the  gauge  crossed  at  right  angles,  one  marked  on 
the  end  with  "  N  "  for  north.  The  arms  can  then  be  so  set 
that  "  N  "  points  to  the  north,  as  determined  either  by  the  sun 
at  midday,  the  polestar  at  night,  or  the  compass  (remembering 
that  the  magnetic  north  is  13°  west  of  the  true  north). 

Direction  of  wind  must  be  stated  by  points  of  the  compass. 

Before  reading  the  direction  of  the  wind  from  the  vane  the  ob- 
server should  gauge  the  approximate  direction  by  smoke,  etc. 

The  Beaufort  flag  is  a  strip  of  linen  5  inches  long  by  three- 
fourths  of  an  inch  wide  attached  either  to  the  wind  vane  itself 


17 


or  on  the  top  of  the  post  that  supports  it.  With  the  aid  of  the 
flag  the  strength  of  the  wind  may  be  determined  by  Beaufort's 
scale. 

Beaufort  scale. 


Beau- 
forts 
No. 

Speed 
(miles 
per 
hour). 

Observation  cf  natural  objects. 

Behavior  of  flag. 

Smoke  straight  up 

No  movement 

1 

2 

Smoke  slants  

Do. 

2 

5 

Feltinfacj... 

Slight. 

3 

10 

Paper  etc.  moved 

Three-fourths  up. 

4 

15 

Bushes  sway  

Up  and  falling  down. 

5 
6 

20 
30 

Tree  tops  sway;  wavelets  on 
water. 
Trees  sway  and  whistle  

Up;  falling  less  ollcn. 
Up  and  napping. 

To  determine  the  number  of  seconds  which  it  will  take  for  a 
gas  cloud  to  move  from  the  enemy's  lines  to  our  own,  double 
trench  distance   (in  yards)   and  divide  by  speed  of  wind   (in 
miles  per  hour ) .    Example : 
100X2 


10 


-=20  seconds. 


THE  WIND-DANGEROUS  PERIOD. 

"  Wind  dangerous  "  is  ordered  when  the  wind  is  in  a  danger- 
ous quarter,  no  matter  what  the  strength  of  the  wind  may  be. 
At  the  same  time  it  is  advisable  that  the  noncommissioned 
officers  be  able  to  estimate  the  strength  of  the  wind,  as  that 
has  some  bearing  on  the  likelihood  of  an  attack.  The  Germans 
seem  to  prefer  a  wind  of  from  4  to  12  miles. 

The  order  is  usually  given  from  corps  or  division  head- 
quarters, but  brigade  or  regimental  commanders  are  empowered 
to  order  a  "  Wind  dangerous  "  as  a  result  of  observations  for- 
warded by  company  commanders.  Such  action  will  be  reported 
immediately  to  the  next  higher  commander.  When  the  order 
is  given  "  Wind  dangerous,"  notices  are  posted  at  the  entrance 
to  each  main  communication  trench  and  at  other  proper  points 
within  the  divisional  area. 

PRECAUTIONS  DURING   WIND-DANGEROUS   PERIOD. 

(a)  All  masks  should  be  carefully  inspected  and  the  inspec- 
tion repeated  daily.  Steps  must  be  taken  to  ascertain  that  all 
gas-alarm  appliances  are  in  their  position  and  in  good  order. 

21168°— 17 3 


18 

(&)  All  ranks  .within  1  mile  of  the  front  line  must  carry 
their  haversacks  in  the  "  alert "  position.  During  "  Wind  dan- 
gerous" the  chin  strap  of  the  helmet  must  on  no  account  be 
worn  under  the  chin,  as  it  will  impede  the  rapid  adjustment  of 
the  mask. 

(c)  A  sentry  should   be  posted   at  each   Strombos  horn  or 
other  alarm  device  and  instructed  in  its  use,  and  all  working 
parties  should  have  a  sentry  posted  to  give  instant  warning 
of  a  gas  attack. 

A  sentry  should  be  posted  to  every  large  shelter  or  group  of 
small  shelters,  and  also  to  each  headquarters,  signal  office,  and 
each  independent  body  of  men. 

Arrangements  must  be  made  by  the  officer  in  charge  of  the 
trench  for  warning  the  artillery  observation  post,  if  there  is 
one  in  the  trench. 

Commanders  of  u  nits  in  billets  within  8  miles  of  the  front- 
line trenches  must  organize  a  system  of  giving  the  alarm  and 
rousing  all  men  in  cellars  or  houses. 

At  night  sentries  should  have  at  least  two  men  within  reach 
of  them,  so  that  the  alarm  can  be  spread  rapidly. 

(d)  When  a  gas  attack  is  probable,  men  in  front-line  trenches 
should  sleep  on  the  fire  step  instead  of  in  dugouts.    Men  sleep- 
ing in  rearward  lines,  or  in  works  where  they  are  allowed  to 
take  off  their  equipment,  must  sleep  with  their  haversacks  on 
the  person. 

(e)  Company  gas  noncommissioned  officers  will  report  to  com- 
pany headquarters  in  readiness  to  assist  the  company   com- 
mander should  a  gas  attack  occur. 

GAS  ALARM. 

For  the  purpose  of  giving  the  gas  alarm  the  British  use,  very 
largely,  the  Strombos  horn,  which  can  be  heard  very  long  dis- 
tances. This  instrument  is  a  large  horn  worked  by  compressed 
air  and  comes  in  a  box  with  two  cylinders  of  compressed  air 
and  a  rubber  connecting  tube.  They  are  placed  at  intervals 
of  not  greater  than  400  yards  along  the  front  line  and  at  such 
points  behind  the  front  as  is  required  to  insure  transmission  of 
warning. 

In  addition  to  the  Strombos  horns,  bells  and  gongs  made  from 
shell  cases,  suspended  rails,  etc.,  are  used,  and  the  buzzer  wire 
is  frequently  employed  to  send  warning  to  the  rear.  No  reliance 
can  be  placed  on  bugles,  whistles,  or  such  devices  as  require 
the  use  of  the  lungs. 


19 

ACTION  TO  BE  TAKEN  IN  THE  TRENCHES  ON  GAS  ALARM. 

(a)  Masks  to  be  put  on  immediately  by  all  ranks. 

(ft)  Rouse  all  men  in  trenches,  dugouts,  and  mine  shafts, 
warn  officers  and  artillery  observation  posts  and  all  employed 
men. 

(c)  Artillery  support  to  be  called  for  by  company  commanders 
by  means  of  prearranged  signals. 

(d)  Warn  regimental  headquarters  and  troops  in  rear  . 

(e)  All  ranks  stand  to  arms  in  the  front  trenches  and  else- 
where where  the  tactical  situation  demands. 

(/)  Blanket  curtains  at  entrances  to  protected  shelters  to  be 
let  down  and  carefully  fixed. 

(g)  Movement  to  cease  except  where  necessary. 

ACTION  TO  BE  TAKEN  IN  BILLETS  AND  BACK  AREAS. 

(a)  All  men  in  cellars  or  houses  to  be  roused. 
(&)  The  blanket  curtains  of  protected  cellars,  etc.,  to  be  let 
down  and  fixed  in  position. 

(c)  Masks  to  be  put  on  immediately  the  gas  is  apparent. 

WARNING  OF  GAS-SHELL  ATTACKS. 

Gas-shell  attacks  are  local  in  their  effects,  and  the  gas  does 
not  spread  to  so  great  a  distance  as  does  the  gas  cloud.  There- 
fore the  character  of  the  "  gas  alarm  "  for  gas  shells  is  different 
from  that  for  "  gas  cloud."  In  the  case  of  gas  shells  every  man 
must  be  his  own  sentry  and  constantly  on  the  lookout  for  that 
form  of  attack,  and  give  the  alarm  as  soon  as  he  detects  gas. 
For  this  reason  a  local  gas-shell  alarm  must  be  arranged  for  each 
individual  unit.  It  must  be  distinct  from  the  gas-cloud  alarm, 
and  every  man  in  the  unit  must  know  what  it  means.  It  is  of 
the  utmost  importance  that  every  man  within  300  yards  of  the 
first  gas  shell  or  trench  mortar  gas  bomb  should  get  his  mask  on 
at  once. 

Frequently  gas  shells  do  not  burst  at  the  commencement  of  a 
bombardment  but  are  used  intermittently.  For  that  reason 
when  anyone  realizes  that  gas  shells  are  being  fired  he  must 
give  the  alarm  instantly.  This  can  be  done  in  two  ways. 

(a)  By  men  who  are  not  in  the  gas  at  the  moment,  or  may 
have  their  masks  completely  adjusted,  shouting  "  Gas  shells " 
as  loudly  as  possible. 


20 

(6)  By  the  prearranged  signal  for  the  unit  being  given  by 
the  sentry  or  whoever  has  first  realized  that  gas  shells  are  being 
fired.  On  this  alarm  may  depend  the  safety  of  those  men  who 
are  in  dugouts  or  in  different  parts  of  the  position  who  would 
not  otherwise  get  warning. 

Gas  shells  may  be  recognized  by  the  following  signs : 

(a)  Many  gas  shells  make  a  peculiar  wabbling  noise  as  they 
come  through  the  air.  This  is  due  to  their  being  filled  with  a 
liquid  instead  of  a  solid. 

(&)  The  noise  of  the  burst  is  very  small  and  might  be  mis- 
taken for  a  "  blind."  There  is  a  difference,  however,  and  after 
hearing  a  few  gas  shells  burst  one  can  recognize  them. 

(c)  Most  gas  shells  on  bursting  form  a  dense  white  cloud, 
which  hangs  together  in  a  peculiar  way  and  is  carried  along  by 
the  wind.  This  is  the  easiest  sign  by  which  the  gas  shell  can  be 
recognized.  The  density  of  the  cloud  varies  with  the  weather 
conditions.  It  is  greatest  when  the  air  is  damp ;  least  when  it 
is  dry. 

ACTION  DURING  A  GAS  ATTACK. 

Protective  measures. — There  should  be  as  little  moving  about 
and  talking  as  possible  in  the  trenches.  Men  must  be  made  to 
realize  that  with  the  gas  now  used  by  the  enemy,  observance  of 
this  may  be  essential  for  their  safety. 

When  an  attack  is  in  progress,  all  bodies  of  troops  or  trans- 
port on  the  move  should  halt  and  all  working  parties  cease  work 
until  the  gas  cloud  has  passed. 

If  a  relief  is  going  on,  units  should  stand  fast  as  far  as  pos- 
sible until  the  gas  cloud  has  passed. 

Supports  and  parties  bringing  up  bombs  should  only  be  moved 
up  if  the  tactical  situation  demands  it. 

If  troops  in  support  or  reserve  lines  of  trenches  remain  in  or 
go  into  dugouts,  they  must  continue  to  wear  their  anti-gas 
appliances. 

Officers  and  noncommissioned  officers  must  on  no  account  open 
up  their  masks  to  give  orders.  The  mouthpiece  may  be  removed 
when  it  is  necessary  to  speak,  bat  it  must  be  immediately  re- 
placed. 

Men  must  always  be  on  the  lookout  to  help  each  other  in  case 
a  mask  is  damaged.  When  a  man  is  wounded  he  must  be 
watched  to  see  that  he  does  not  remove  his  mask.  If  necessary 
his  hands  should  be  tied. 


21 

Men  must  be  warned  that  if  they  are  slightly  "  gassed  "  before 
adjusting  their  masks  they  must  not  remove  them.  The  effect 
will  wear  off.  After  the  cloud  has  passed  and  the  trenches  been 
cleared  of  gas  by  the  apparatus  provided  for  the  purpose,  the 
noncommissioned  officer  in  charge  of  each  trench  section  will 
assure  himself  that  the  trench  is  free  from  gas  by  raising  his 
mask  slightly  and  will  then  issue  the  order  to  take  off  masks. 
Men  will  on  no  account  take  off  their  masks  until  the  order  to 
do  so  has  been  given.  Dugouts  and  bombproofs  must  be  entered 
with  caution  even  after  the  trenches  are  clear,  as  gas  frequently 
remains  in  them  some  hours. 

PRACTICAL  INSTRUCTION  (Second  Day). 

1.  Repeat  the  exercises  of  the  previous  day  several  times  and 
note  the  improvement  in  the  men.    Those  men  not  showing  suffi- 
cient improvement  should  be  drilled  individually  or  in  small 
squads  and  their  faults  corrected. 

2.  Ordinary   infantry  drill,  including  manual  of  arms,  set- 
ting-up exercises,  and  marching  will  be  carried  out  for  two 
periods  of  15  minutes  each.    Marching  should  occasionally  in- 
clude double-time  for  at  least  200  yards. 

3.  Practice  in  bombing,  rapid  loading  and  aiming,  judging 
distance,  and  range  practicing,  15-minute  periods. 

4.  Fitting  of  masks. — Each  man  is  scrutinized  to  see  that  his 
mask  is  not  obviously  too  large  or  too  small  for  him.    Then  the 
command  "  Gas  "  is  given  and  the  class  is  marched  into  the  gas 
chamber.    The  lachrymator  benzyl  chloride  is  vaporized  in  the 
chamber  in  the  proportion  of  about  1  teaspoonful  to  200  cubic 
feet  of  air  space  either  by  heating  in  a  tin  over  a  candle  flame 
or  by  spraying.     Each  man  remains  five  minutes  in  the  room, 
moving  and  talking.    If  a  man's  eyes  are  affected,  he  goes  out 
of  the  room  and  is  examined  to  see  if  his  adjustment  is  perfect 
or  if  he  needs  a  smaller  mask.     If  the  latter,  he  is  given  a 
smaller  mask,  and  then  reenters  the  chamber.    After  five  min- 
utes all  men  are  marched  out  and  stand  in  the  open  air  for  some 
minutes  to  free  their  clothes  from  the  vapor.    Then  the  order 
"  Take  off  masks  "  is  given  and  the  eyes  of  all  men  are  examined. 
If  the  eyes  of  any  are  affected,  they  are  given  smaller  masks. 
Any  man  whose  face  is  marked  on  forehead  or  cheeks  by  too 
much  pressure  from  the  face  piece  is  given  a  larger  mask. 

After  the  fitting,  the  words  "  Fitted  box  respirator  size  X  " 
and  the  date  are  to  be  written  on  the  man's  descriptive  list. 


22 

In  order  to  demonstrate  the  protection  which  has  been  afforded 
by  the  mask,  the  class  will  now  be  put  in  the  chamber  without 
masks. 

LECTURE  NO.  3  (Third  Day). 

ACTION  TO  BE  TAKEN  AFTER  A  GAS  ATTACK. 

Cloud-gas  attacks  are  generally  made  in  successive  waves 
(usually  three),  so  that  after  a  gas-cloud  attack  a  sharp  look- 
out must  be  maintained  as  long  as  the  wind  continues  in  a  dan- 
gerous quarter.  During  an  attack  the  gas  sinks  into  the 
trenches,  and  especially  into  those  dugouts  and  cellars  which  are 
not  protected  by  blanket  doors.  When  gas  shells  are  used,  the 
gas  sinks  into  the  crater  made  by  the  shell  and  remains  in  all 
of  these  places  a  long  time.  Dugouts,  cellars,  etc.,  must  not  be 
entered,  therefore,  except  by  men  wearing  masks,  until  they 
have  been  thoroughly  cleared  out. 

CLEARING   OF   SHELTERS. 

The  only  way  in  which  dugouts  and  cellars  can  be  cleared  of 
gas  is  through  artificial  ventilation  by  means  of  fires  and  anti- 
gas  fans.  Formerly  a  Vermorel  sprayer,  very  much  like  an 
ordinary  tree  sprayer,  was  used  with  an  alkaline  solution  which 
neutralized  the  chlorine.  With  the  advent  of  phosgene,  how- 
ever, the  Vermorel  sprayer  lost  its  efficiency  and  now  is  only 
useful  in  wetting  the  blankets  at  dugout  entrances. 

Unless  a  shelter  has  been  thoroughly  ventilated  by  artificial 
means  it  must  not  be  slept  in  or  occupied  without  wearing 
respirators  until  at  least  12  hours  have  elapsed.  It  must  not  be 
entered  at  all  without  respirators  on  for  at  least  three  hours. 
The  above  refers  to  gas-cloud  attacks.  In  the  case  of  a  gas- 
shell  bombardment,  time  limits  can  not  be  stated,  as  they  depend 
on  the  nature  of  the  gas  used  and  the  severity  of  the  bo.ubard- 
ment. 

With  lachrymatory  gases,  the  times  after  which  shelters  can 
be  used  without  discomfort  may  be  considerably  longer  than 
three  hours. 

Ventilation  by  fire. — All  kinds  of  shelters  can  be  efficiently  and 
rapidly  cleared  of  gas  by  the  use  of  fires.  Shelters  with  two 
openings  are  the  easiest  to  ventilate,  and  where  possible  dugouts 
with  only  one  entrance  should  have  a  second  opening  made,  even 
a  very  small  one,  to  assist  in  ventilation. 


23 

In  dugouts  provided  with  a  single  exit  at  the  end  of  a  short 
passage,  the  best  results  are  obtained  if  the  fire  is  placed  in  the 
center  of  the  floor  of  the  dugout  and  at  a  height  of  about  6 
inches.  In  dugouts  provided  with  a  single  exit  at  the  end  of  a 
long  and  nearly  horizontal  passage,  the  best  results  are  obtained 
if  the  fire  is  placed  about  one- third  the  distance  from  the  inner 
end  of  the  passage. 

In  dugouts  provided  with  two  or  more  exits,  the  fire  should  be 
placed  at  the  inner  end  of  one  of  the  exit  passages. 

In  general,  1  pound  of  dry  wood  per  200  cubic  feet  of  air  space 
is  sufficient  for  clearance  of  any  gas.  The  best  fuel  is  split 
wood,  but  any  fuel  which  does  not  smoulder  or  give  off  thick 
smoke  can  be  used.  The  materials  for  the  fire,  e.  g.,  split  wood, 
newspaper,  and  a  small  bottle  of  paraffin  for  lighting  purposes, 
should  be  kept  in  a  sandbag  inclosed  in  a  tin  can  provided  with 
a  lid.  An  improvised  brazier  should  be  kept  ready  for  use. 

The  fire  should  be  kept  burning  for  at  least  10  minutes  and 
the  atmosphere  in  the  shelter  should  be  tested  from  time  to  time. 

Ventilation  by  fanning. — Dugouts  can  be  ventilated  by  produc- 
ing air  currents  in  them  by  means  of  special  anti-gas  fans.  If 
no  anti-gas  fans  are  available,  ventilation  can  be  assisted  by 
flapping  with  improvised  fans,  such  as  sand  bags,  sheets,  etc. 

Anti-gas  fans. — The  anti-gas  fan  consists  of  a  sheet  of  canvas 
supported  by  braces  of  cane  and  reinforced  in  the  middle.  It  is 
made  with  two  transverse  hinges  and  is  fitted  with  a  hickory 
handle.  The  flapping  portion  is,  roughly,  15  inches  square  and 
the  handle  is  2  feet  long. 

METHOD    OF    USE. 

(a)  Clearing  trenches. — The  fan  blade  is  placed  on  the  ground 
with  the  brace  side  downward,  the  man  using  it  being  in  a 
slightly  crouching  position  with  the  left  foot  advanced,  the  right 
hand  grasping  the  handle  at  the  neck  and  the  left  hand  near  the 
butt  end.  The  fan  is  brought  up  quickly  over  the  right  shoulder, 
and  then  smartly  flicked  to  the  ground  with  quick  slapping 
strokes.  This  drives  a  current  of  air  along  the  earth  and.  on  the 
top  strokes,  throws  the  gas  out  of  the  trench  as  if  it  were  by  a 
shovel. 

It  is  essential  that  the  part  of  the  fan  blade  nearest  the  handle 
should  touch  the  ground  first,  and  this  can  be  accomplished  in  all 
cases  by  ending  the  stroke  with  the  whole  length  of  the  handle 
as  close  to  the  ground  as  possible. 


24 

(6)  In  working  round  a  traverse,  etc.,  the  fan  should  be 
flapped  round  the  corner  with  the  hinge  on  the  corner  and  the 
lower  edge  of  the  fan  as  near  the  bottom  of  the  trench  as  can 
be  managed.  The  brace  side  of  the  fan  is  to  be  outward  and  at 
the  end  of  the  stroke  the  whole  length  of  the  handle  should  be 
close  up  to  the  side  of  the  trench. 

If  several  fans  are  available,  men  should  work  in  single  filo 
and  with  "  out-of-step  "  strokes,  i.  e.,  one  fan  should  be  up  while 
the  next  is  down. 

(c)  Clearing  shelters. — In  the  case  of  a  dugout  with  a  single 
entrance  not  exceeding  12  feet  in  length  the  gas  is  first  cleared 
from  the  neighborhood  of  the  shelter  as  in  (a)  and  then  the 
corners  worked  round  as  in  ( & ) .    The  worker  now  advanced  to 
the  inner  end  of  the  entrance,  beating  rather  slowly  on  the 
ground  to  allow  the  gas  time  to  get  out  of  the  tunnel  and  bring- 
ing the  fan  as  near  the  roof  as  possible  on  the  return  stroke. 

It  may  be  desirable  to  have  a  second  fan  working  just  outside 
the  dugout  to  throw  the  gas  out  of  the  trench  as  it  comes  out. 

(d)  In  the  case  of  dugouts  with  two  entrances  or  with  one 
entrance  and  another  opening,  such  as  a  chimney,  it  is  only 
necessary  to  use  the  fan  round  the  corner  of  one  entrance  in  the 
manner  described  in  (&).    When  the  entrance  is  cleared,  it  Is 
advisable  to  enter  the  shelter  with  a  respirator  on  in  order  to 
beat  up  the  gas  from  the  floor  boards,  etc.    This  greatly  facili- 
tates the  removal  of  the  last  traces  of  gas. 

VERMOREL    SPRAYERS. 

Vermorel  sprayers  are  withdrawn  from  general  use  for  clear- 
ing out  gas  after  an  attack,  but  a  certain  number  are  retained 
for  moistening  the  blankets  of  protected  shelters  and  for  use  in 
medical  dugouts,  etc.  They  should  be  kept  for  this  purpose  only 
and  on  no  account  relied  on  for  clearing  trenches  or  shelters  of 
gas. 

Company  Vermorel  sprayers. — Sprayers  on  the  basis  of  two 
per  company  are  retained  for  moistening-blanket  protection. 
They  should  be  kept  by  company  gas  noncommissioned  officers 
with  other  anti-gas  trench  stores  and  should  be  kept  one-third 
full  of  water.  The  solution  must  be  kept  in  corked  demijohns 
or  other  closed  receptacles  close  to  each  sprayer ;  it  must  not  be 
kept  in  the  sprayers  owing  to  its  corrosive  nature.  It  is  made 
up  as  follows:  Water,  3  gallons  (one  large  bucket)  ;  sodium 
thiosulphate  (hypo.),  1|  pounds  (three-fourths  mess  tin)  ; 
sodium  carbonate  (washing  soda),  3  pounds  (1£  mess  tins). 


25 

Three  demijohns  are  required  to  hold  the  above  quantity,  and 
the  necessity  for  keeping  them  corked  must  be  impressed  on  the 
personnel  responsible  for  it. 

When  no  solution  is  obtainable  water  may  be  used  for  spray- 
ing the  blankets. 

TREATMENT  OF  SHELL  HOLES. 

Shell  holes  which  are  so  situated  as  to  be  obnoxious  should  be 
filled  up  with  fresh  earth,  care  being  taken  to  cover  up  all 
places  around  the  hole  where  the  chemical  liquid  from  the  shell 
has  dropped.  Shell  holes  so  treated  should  not  be  disturbed,  as 
the  chemical  is  not  destroyed  by  burying,  and  only  slowly  dis- 
appears. 

CLEANING  OF  ARMS  AND  AMMUNITION. 

Rifles  and  machine  guns  must  be  cleaned  after  a  gas  attack 
and  then  reoiled.  Oil  cleaning  will  prevent  corrosion  for  12  hours 
or  more,  but  the  first  available  opportunity  must  be  taken  to  dis- 
mantle machine  guns  and  clean  all  parts  in  boiling  w^ater  con- 
taining a  little  soda.  If  this  is  not  done,  corrosion  continues 
slowly,  even  after  oil  cleaning,  and  may  ultimately  put  the  gun 
out  of  action. 

After  a  gas  attack  small-arms  ammunition  should  be  carefully 
examined.  All  rounds  affected  by  gas  must  be  replaced  by  new 
cartridges  immediately  and  the  old  ones  cleaned  and  expended 
as  soon  as  possible. 

All  hand  and  rifle  grenades  exposed  to  the  gas  should  have 
their  safety  pins  and  working  parts  cleaned  and  reoiled. 

All  bright  parts  of  light  trench  mortars,  together  with  all 
accessories  and  spare  parts  exposed  to  the  gas,  must  be  cleaned 
and  wiped  dry  as  soon  as  possible  after  the  attack  and  in  any 
case  \vithin  24  hours,  after  \vhich  they  should  be  thoroughly 
coated  afresh  with  oil.  The  same  applies  to  ammunition  which 
may  have  been  exposed  to  the  gas. 

Ammunition  which  for  any  reason  had  not  been  oiled  must 
be  cleaned  and  oiled  and  expended  as  soon  as  possible. 

The  following  precautions  apply  to  medium  and  heavy  trench 
mortars,  as  well  as  to  guns  and  howitzers : 

PROTECTION. 

Batteries  which  are  in  constant  danger  of  gas  attacks, 
whether  from  gas  clouds  or  gas  shells,  should  keep  all  bright 


26 

parts  of  the  gun  or  mortar,  carriage,  mounting,  and  accessories 
well  coated  with  oil. 

Sights  and  all  instruments  should  also  be  smeared  with  oil 
and  protected  with  covers  when  not  in  actual  use,  care  being 
taken  that  the  oil  does  not  come  in  contact  with  any  glass  or 
find  its  way  into  the  interior  of  the  instrument. 

Cartridge  cases  of  the  ammunition  stored  with  the  battery 
and  all  uncapped  fuzes,  or  fuzes  which  have  been  removed  from 
their  cylinders,  should  be  wiped  over  with  oil  as  soon  as  possi- 
ble and  protected  with  a  cover. 

CLEANING. 

All  bright  parts  of  guns  and  trench  mortars,  together  with 
all  accessories  and  spart  parts  exposed  to  the  gas,  must  be 
cleaned  and  wiped  dry  as  soon  as  possible  after  the  attack,  and 
in  any  case  within  24  hours,  after  which  they  should  be  thor- 
oughly coated  afresh  with  oil. 

PROTECTION  OF  TELEPHONE  INSTRUMENTS. 

The  only  method  of  preventing  corrosion  of  electrical  appa- 
ratus during  a  gas  attack  is  to  prevent  the  gas  reaching  it, 
and  the  best  way  to  do  this  is  to  have  signal  shelters  thoroughly 
protected  against  gas.  As  the  corrosive  effect  on  damp  instru- 
ments is  very  much  greater  than  on  dry  instruments,  the  shel- 
ters should  be  kept  as  dry  as  possible. 

•During  a  gas  attack  telephones  must  be  kept  in  their  leather 
cases,  and,  unless  the  buzzer  key  is  being  used,  the  leather  flap 
must  be  kept  down,  leaving  only  the  cords  with  the  receiver 
and  hand  sets  out  of  the  case.  The  backs  of  switchboard  and 
buzzer  exchange  must  be  kept  closed.  All  apparatus  such  as 
magneto  telephones,  test  boards,  space  instruments,  etc.,  which 
it  is  not  essential  to  have  uncovered,  should  be  well  covered 
up  with  cloths,  blankets,  or  coats,  etc. 

CLEANING  INSTRUMENTS  AFTER  GAS  ATTACK. 

After  a  gas  attack,  telephone  apparatus  that  has  been  ex- 
posed to  gas  should  be  treated  as  follows :  The  ends  of  the  wires 
should  be  removed  from  terminals  and  cleaned  by  being  scraped 
with  a  knife,  wiped  with  a  damp  cloth,  and  dried.  Terminals, 
exchange  plugs,  and  all  exposed  metal  work  should  be  cleaned 
by  being  scraped  with  a  knife,  wiped  writh  a  damp  cloth,  and 


27 

dried.  This  process  should  be  repeated  after  12  hours  have 
elapsed.  The  metal  work  of  the  leather  case  of  the  telephone 
and  of  other  instrument  cases  should  be  cleaned  with  oil  in  the 
same  way  as  rifles,  etc.  The  internal  portions  of  the  instru- 
ments should  not  be  interfered  with.  If  an  instrument  has 
been  kept  closed  or  covered  up,  it  is  very  unlikely  that  internal 
portions  will  have  suffered,  but  if  these  portions  show  signs 
of  corrosion  the  instruments  should  be  sent  back  to  division 
or  corps  headquarters,  to  be  dealt  with  by  an  instrument 
repairer. 

PRACTICAL  INSTRUCTION  (Third  Day). 

1.  Repeat  mask  drill. 

2.  Practice  in  cleaning  trenches  and  dugouts  with  anti-gas 
fans    (show  the  method  of  holding  the  fan  and   making  the 
stroke  as  described  in  the  morning  lecture).     Explain  the  effects 
on  the  gas  as  each  stroke  is  made. 

3.  Inspection  of  masks. — Box  respirators  must  normally  be 
inspected  once  a  week  and  daily  during  "  Gas  alert."    Attention 
will  be  paid  to  the  following  points : 

(a)  Boxes,  face  piece,  mouthpiece,  nose  clip,  eyepieces,  and 
elastic  must  be  in  good  order.  If  the  box  is  rusted  through,  the 
respirator  must  be  condemned. 

(I))  Face  piece  must  be  firmly  attached  to  the  mouthpiece 
and  to  the  elbow  tube. 

(c)  The  metal  tube  inside  the  mouthpiece  must  be  about  one- 
eighth  inch  back  from  the  opening  of  the  latter. 

(d)  The  rubber  tube  must  be  intact  and  firmly  attached  to  the 
box  and  elbow  tube. 

(e)  The  expiratory  valve  should  be  tested  by  removing  the 
box  from  the  satchel  and  either  closing  the  cap  at  the  bottom 
with  the  hand  or  pinching  the  rubber  tube  so  as  to  prevent 
inlet  of  air,  at  the  same  time  attempting  to  draw  in  air  through 
the  mouthpiece.     It  should  not  be  possible  to  draw  in  any  air. 
This  also  proves  the  absence  of  Jeaks  in  the  tube  or  box.     It 
must  be  possible  to  breathe  out  easily  through  the  valve.     If 
the  latter  has  stuck  because  of  saliva  drying  in  it,  this  must  be 
remedied  by  rubbing  the  valve  between  the  fingers. 

(/)  See  that  the  inlet  valve  is  opening  properly  and  that  air 
can  be  drawn  freely  through  the  box. 

(ff)  See  that  the  whipcord  is  present  and  not  knotted. 


28 

(7i)  Any  small  perforations  in  the  face  piece  should  be  tem- 
porarily repaired  by  applying  pieces  of  adhesive  plaster  from 
the  repair  outfit  to  the  perforation,  both  inside  and  outside 
the  mask.  The  adhesive  plaster  should  be  large  enough  to 
overlap  the  hole  all  around. 

Respirators  so  repaired  must  be  exchanged  as  soon  as  possible. 

(Z)  Replace  the  box  in  the  satchel  so  that  the  face  piece  comes 
to  the  face  without  twist  on  the  tube.  Fold  face  piece  carefully 
and  replace  in  the  satchel  so  that  the  expiratory  valve  is  not 
likely  to  crumple. 

4.  Exposure  to  chlorine  gas  in  ffas  house. — Chlorine  should  be 
generated  in  strength  of  1 : +10,000  and  men  required  to  go  to  the 
open  door  of  the  gas  house  and  take  several  breaths  of  it. 

They  should  then  put  on  their  masks  and  enter  the  gas  house, 
where  they  remain  10  minutes.  During  this  time  they  should 
exercise,  give  orders,  etc. 

LECTURE  NO.  4  (Fourth  Day). 

THE    ACTION    AND    TREATMENT    OF    POISONOUS    GASES. 

While  the  very  detailed  study  of  the  action  of  the  poisonous 
gases  used  in  warfare  and  the  technical  description  of  the  ex- 
act manner  in  which  they  damage  the  human  being  are  matters 
which  are  of  interest  chiefly  to  medical  officers,  a  clear  under- 
standing by  line  officers  of  the  importance  of  the  means  of 
defense  provided  can  hardly  be  obtained  without  at  least  a 
general  view  of  the  ways  in  which  these  substances  act  upon 
the  human  body. 

KINDS    OF    GASES. 

Gases  which  are  used  in  modern  warfare  are : 

1.  Gases  which  act  as  irritants  to  the  lungs  and  to  the  breath- 
ing apparatus  generally. 

2.  Gases  which  act  as  eye  irritants, 

3.  Gases   which    act   by    preventing   the   blood    from    taking 
oxygen. 

4.  Gases  which  act  as  direct  poisons  to  the  central  nervous 
system 

THE    EFFECT    OF    GASES. 

In  the  beginning  of  the  modern  use  of  gas  in  warfare,  chlorine 
gas  was  used  almost  exclusively,  and  this  gas  is  the  type  of  the 
first  class — the  lung  irritants.  The  curious  fact  may  be  here 


29 

noted  that  this  gas  is  at  once  the  soldier's  best  friend  and  one 
of  his  worst  enemies,  for  it  is  upon  the  action  of  this  gas  that 
we  depend  for  the  modern  method  of  disinfection  of  water. 
It  is  also  the  active  principle  in  the  new  Carrel-Dakin  method  of 
wound  treatment.  Just  as  chlorine  is  almost  immediately  fatal 
to  germ  life  in  drinking  water  and  in  the  depths  of  infected 
wounds,  even  when  used  in  very  dilute  solutions,  so  it  is  quite 
promptly  fatal  to  the  human  being  when  used  in  sufficient  doses. 

When  one  is  exposed  to  chlorine  gas  his  symptoms  will  de- 
pend upon  the  strength  of  concentration  of  the  gas  in  the  air 
which  he  breathes.  He  will  at  once  feel  greatly  distressed 
about  his  breathing  and  will  cough,  gasp,  and  choke. 

If  the  concentration  of  the  chlorine  is  no  more-  than  1  part 
to  100,000  parts  of  air  he  will  not  be  able  to  breathe  for  some 
time,  though  there  may  be  severe  after  effects.  If  the  strength 
is  1  part  of  chlorine  to  10,000  of  air  he  will  not  be  able  to  take 
more  than  two  or  three  breaths.  His  eyes  and  nose  will  be 
irritated,  he  will  be  choked  by  spasmodic  contractions  of  his 
throat,  and  he  will  quickly  be  incapacitated  for  any  exertion. 

There  is,  however,  not  only  the  temporary  inconvenience  to 
be  considered  but  the  permanent  damage  which  is  done  to  the 
tissues  of  the  bronchial  tubes  and  lungs. 

We  have  in  the  breathing  apparatus  a  very  sensitive  set  of 
tissues.  The  air  cells  or  alveoli  of  the  lungs  are  guarded  from 
contact  with  irritating  substances  by  an  elaborate  system  by 
which  the  air  which  finally  reaches  this  region  does  so  only  after 
the  most  careful  filtering  through  the  nose  and  through  the  upper 
air  passages.  When  we  realize  further  that  when  we  are  deal- 
ing with  chlorine  we  are  dealing  with  one  of  the  most  powerful 
caustic  agents  in  the  whole  list  of  chemical  elements,  a  substance 
capable  of  causing  severe  burns  v/hen  it  comes  in  contact  with 
the  much  more  resistant  skin,  and  even  of  combining  with  and 
corroding  steel  and  other  metals,  it  will  not  be  hard  to  under- 
stand that  the  damage  done  to  the  tender  tissues  of  the  breathing 
apparatus  must  be  of  the  most  severe  type. 

Experience  proves  that  this  is  true,  and  that  one  or  two 
breaths  of  a  concentration  of  chlorine  gas,  one  part  to  a  thou- 
sand, has  been  sufficient  to  damage  the  lining  of  the  bronchial 
tubes  and  of  the  air  cells  of  the  lungs  beyond  hope  of  repair. 

We  are  all  familiar  with  the  effects  of  injuries  upon  those 
tissues  of  our  bodies  which  we  can  see  and  where  we  can  inspect 
the  results  of  the  damage.  We  know  that  within  a  short  time 


30 

there  will  be  swelling,  the  extent  of  which  will  depend  upon  the 
looseness  of  the  tissues  injured.  About  the  eye  or  lip,  for  ex- 
ample, such  swelling  from  a  blow  will  be  very  prompt  and  often 
very  extensive,  the  swelling  being  due  to  the  pouring  out  of- 
fluid  about  the  seat  of  the  injury,  as  a  first  step  in  the  process 
of  repair.  A  bee  sting  is  an  excellent  example  of  the  way  in 
which  tissues  react  to  damage. 

The  swelling  thus  produced  is  called  oadema,  and  it  is  exactly 
this  sort  of  thing  which  takes  place  in  the  lungs  when  chlorine 
gas,  even  in  great  dilution,  is  inhaled. 

In  response  to  the  instant  and  what  might  be  called  an  auto- 
matic effort  on  the  part  of  the  tissues  to  wash  away  the  offend- 
ing material,  great  volumes  of  fluid  are  at  once  poured  out 
into  the  air  cells,  which  become  so  filled  with  fluid  that  the  air 
does  not  have  any  opportunity  to  enter  the  cells. 

Even  momentary  contact  of  chlorine  gas  with  the  delicate 
membrane  lining  the  fine  air  vesicles  has  so  far  injured  them 
that  their  capacity  for  handling  the  air  in  their  normal  way  is 
lost. 

Life  depends  upon  a  sufficient  aerating  of  the  blood.  The  very 
delicate  machinery  by  which  this  is  accomplished  usually  works 
very  efficiently,  even  in  a  dusty  atmosphere,  The  nicely  strained, 
warmed,  and  moistened  air  is  brought  into  gentle  contact  with 
the  delicate  wall  of  the  air  cell,  on  the  other  side  of  which  is  the 
network  of  thin-walled  blood  vessels,  and  an  equitable  exchange 
takes  place  according  to  certain  well-defined  laws  of  the  diffu- 
sion of  gases,  between  the  coloring  matter  of  the  blood,  which  has 
an  affinity  for  the  oxygen  of  the  air,  and  the  supply  which  has 
been  brought  to  it. 

Very  obviously,  under  the  conditions  which  we  are  supposing, 
this  change  can  not  take  place,  and  the  subject  not  only  feels 
suffocated  but  actually  becomes  blue  from  lack  of  air. 

Owing  to  the  caustic  character  of  this  gas,  there  is  great  dis- 
comfort and  pain  in  the  chest,  and  coughing,  gagging,  and  some- 
times vomiting  in  the  effort  to  clear  the  lungs. 

The  cough  may  be  so  violent  and  the  injury  to  the  cells  so 
great  that  the  partitions  between  the  air  cells  are  broken  and 
air  may  leak  out  into  the  tissues.  In  the  early  cases  of  gassing 
this  was  a  very  prominent  feature  of  the  symptoms. 

When  the  blue  stage  of  suffocation  is  reached  the  mind  becomes 
dulled  and  unconsciousness  soon  follows.  Later,  the  breathing 
being  so  much  interfered  with,  the  heart  gets  a  poor  supply  of 


31 

blood,  its  strength  fails,  the  blue  color  of  the  sufferer  gives  way 
to  the  leaden  color  of  collapse,  and  he  succumbs  to  heart  failure. 
When  the  dose  has  been  insufficient  to  cause  a  fatal  inflammation, 
there  results  a  long-continued  bronchitis,  and  sometimes  a 
stretching  of  the  air  cells,  from  the  violent  cough,  which  leads 
to  shortage  of  breath  and  permanent  disability. 

In  1916  the  cloud  gas  used  showed  somewhat  different  effects, 
due  to  the  fact  that  instead  of  being  pure  chlorine  alone  it  was 
a  mixture  of  chlorine  and  phosgene,  or  in  some  instances 
phosgene  alone. 

This  gas,  which  has  the  formula  "  COC12,"  is  a  derivative  of 
Cl.  It  does  not  so  quickly  cause  oedema  of  the  lungs  and  is  not 
so  immediately  irritant  to  the  breathing  apparatus. 

The  cough  and  strangling  are  not  so  marked,  and  for  an  hour 
or  so  the  subject  may  be  abe  to  go  on  with  his  work.  A  little 
later  he  may  then  suddenly  go  into  a  fatal  collapse. 

The  reaction  which  takes  place  in  the  lungs  is  due  to  the  fact 
that  phosgene,  where  it  comes  into  contact  with  a  warm,  moist 
surface,  as  in  the  air  cells  of  the  lungs,  forms  HC1  (hydrochloric 
acid ) ,  and  it  is  upon  the  formation  of  this  substance  in  the  lungs 
that  the  poisonous  effects  of  the  gas  depend. 

As  there  is  not  so  much  of  the  violent  coughing  and  strangling 
with  this  form  of  gas,  there  is  not  so  likely  to  be  a  tearing  of  the 
air  cells  and  a  leakage  of  air  and  gas  into  the  tissues  as  with 
chlorine. 

The  second  group  of  lung  irritants,  the  nitrous  fumes,  nitric 
oxide,  and  nitrogen  peroxide,  do  not  cause  so  much  immediate 
irritation,  but  after  a  few  hours  of  comparative  freedom  from 
symptoms  after  exposure,  sudden,  fatal  collapse  may  occur. 
This  delayed  action  is  quite  characteristic  of  gases  of  this  group, 
and  it  is  important  to  remember,  since  men  suffering  from  the 
immediate  effects  of  these  fumes  may  die  suddenly  after  24  to 
48  hours. 

LACHRYMATORS. 

The  second  type  of  gases  are  those  which  are  used  primarily 
as  eye  irritants  and  have  practically  no  permanent  effect  upon 
the  breathing  apparatus.  This  is  the  group  called  lachrymators, 
or  tear  producers.  Benzyl  bromide  is  the  type  of  this  gas.  Even 
in  very  minute  concentration  these  gases  cause  a  very  profuse 
flow  of  tears,  the  lining  of  the  eyelids  swell,  and  the  subject 
may  be  temporarily  blinded. 


32 

The  effect  passes  off  entirely  in  a  day  or  two,  leaving  no  per- 
manent effects.  In  very  concentrated  states  these  gases  may 
also  act  as  lung  irritants  to  a  certain  extent.  Formalin,  the 
use  of  which  as  a  fumigating  material  is  familiar  to  all,  may 
be  used  in  this  way.  Protection  against  gases  of  this  type  is, 
as  a  rule,  easily  afforded  by  goggles,  but  lachrymatory  gases 
are  rarely  used  alone,  and  therefore  the  mask  must  always  be 
worn  when  their  presence  is  detected. 

Carbon  monoxide  is  typical  of  the  third  group  of  gases,  wrhich 
act  by  combining  with  the  oxygen-carrying  substance  in  the 
blood  (hemoglobin),  and  is  of  importance,  though  it  occurs  acci- 
dentally in  warfare  and  is  not  used  deliberately  in  cloud  gas  or 
gas-shell  attacks,  its  physical  properties  not  lending  themselves 
readily  to  these  purposes. 

It  is  peculiarly  liable  to  occur  under  circumstances  where  the 
presence  of  gas  would  not  ordinarily  be  expected ;  from  the  im- 
perfect combustions  of  explosives  of  the  TNT  type,  from  the 
escape  of  illuminating  gas,  which  is  largely  made  up  of  CO,  in 
the  fumes  from  firing  of  guns  in  close  compartments,  in  burning 
buildings,  from  the  warming  of  sleeping  quarters  by  charcoal 
braziers,  in  mine  galleries,  in  the  coal  bunkers  and  stokeholes  of 
battleships  and  transports,  etc.  Its  chief  danger  lies  in  the  fact 
that  it  is  odorless,  tasteless,  colorless,  and  nonirritant,  so  that 
in  places  where  carbon  monoxide  is  liable  to  be  generated  every 
precaution  must  be  taken.  Small  animals,  such  as  mice  and 
canary  birds,  are  quickly  affected  by  even  small  quantities  of 
carbon  monoxide  and  are  excellent  means  of  warning. 

The  first  symptom  is  usually  a  sense  of  weakness  in  the  limbs. 
The  subject  is  then  unable  to  handle  himself,  the  coordination  is 
lost,  the  muscular  weakness  increases,  he  staggers,  perhaps 
becomes  excited,  and  shouts,  laughs,  or  sings  like  a  drunken 
man.  Violent  headache  is  one  of  the  early  symptoms. 

PARALYZING  GASES. 

The  fourth  group  of  gases,  of  which  hydrocyanic  or  prussic 
acid  is  the  type,  act  as  direct  poisons  to  the  central  nervous 
system  and  in  high  concentration  are  instantaneously  fatal. 

The  effects  of  a  dose  which  is  not  immediately  fatal  are  dizzi- 
ness, confusion,  headache,  blurring  of  vision,  palpitation,  pain 
in  chest  and  over  the  heart,  labored  breathing.  Convulsions 
may  occur.  In  fatal  doses  there  is  immediate  unconsciousness, 
dilation  of  the  pupils,  gasping  respiration,  and  death  with  or 


33 

without  convulsions.  HCN  has  an  odor  like  that  of  bitter  al- 
monds or  crushed  peach  kernels,  and  this  odor  is  perceptible 
even  in  very  dilute  concentrations  insufficient  to  cause  death. 

FIRST  AID  AND  TREATMENT  IN  GAS  CASES, 

Rest  is  the  most  important  point  of  all  in  the  general  treat- 
ment of  gassed  cases.  Men,  and  especially  officers,  should  be 
warned  that  if  even  lightly  gassed  they  must  refrain  from  mov- 
ing about  or  shouting  out  orders.  Physical  strain  after  being 
gassed  may  easily  cause  the  loss  of  a  life  that  might  otherwise 
have  been  saved. 

Warmth  is  needed  in  many  of  the  severe  cases,  especially  at 
the  outset,  when  they  are  collapsed  and  their  skin  is  cold.  To 
attain  this,  it  may  even  be  necessary  to  transfer  them  tempo- 
rarily indoors.  Otherwise  the  fullest  supply  of  fresh  air  is 
needed  for  all  cases.  When  outside,  care  should  be  taken  to 
protect  against  chill,  which  might  lead  to  a  subsequent  broch- 
pneumonia. 

Every  impediment  to  the  easiest  breathing  should  be  removed. 
Belts,  suspenders,  the  blouse,  etc.,  should  be  loosened. 

If  the  patient  is  vomiting  much  the  head  should  be  turned  so 
as  to  empty  the  mouth.  Frequently  gassed  men  attempt  to 
remove  their  masks.  This  should  be  looked  out  for  by  the  men 
who  are  not  gassed,  and  if  a  patient  shows  a  disposition  to  re- 
move his  mask  his  hands  should  be  tied. 

All  cases  should  be  evacuated  as  soon  as  possible  to  the  regi- 
mental aid  station,  and,  except  in  very  slightly  gassed  men,  all 
cases  should  be  carried.  In  no  case  should  a  man  who  has  been 
gassed  attempt  to  carry  his  own  equipment  to  the  rear. 

At  the  regimental  aid  station  inhalations  oi!  ammonia,  stimu- 
lating hot  drinks,  etc.,  may  be  given,  and  vomiting  may  be  in- 
duced' in  certain  cases  by  tepid  salt  water. 

Oxygen  is  of  great  advantage  in  certain  cases  and  each  dress- 
ing station  is  provided  with  several  cylinders  of  oxygen.  From 
these  the  oxygen  flows  through  a  hose  to  a  valved  face  mask, 
which  fits  over  the  face  tightly.  The  pure  oxygen  is  admin- 
istered every  15  minutes  for  4  or  5  minutes  each  time. 

Many  drugs  have  been  tried  to  combat  the  poison  of  gases, 
but  very  few  have  been  proved  of  value.  A  summary  of  the 
treatment  of  gas  cases  seems  to  show  that  rest,  warmth,  fresh 


34 

air  when  possible,  oxygen  inhalation,  and  gentle  stimulation  is 
all  that  can  be  done.  When  these  measures  are  employed,  how- 
ever, many  cases  recover. 

PRACTICAL  INSTRUCTION  (Fourth  Day). 

1.  Repeat   mask   drill,   marking  the  time.    Upon  the   alarm 
"  Gas  "  have  squads  of  four  men  put  on  the  mask.    When  the 
mask  is  completely  adjusted  each  man  will  step  forward 'one 
pace.     Men  should  be  drilled  until  they  can  complete  the  adjust- 
ment in  six  seconds. 

2.  If  the  weather  is  favorable,  liberate  a  gas-cloud  attack  on 
the  trench.    Place  three  gas  cylinders  about  300  yards  from  the 
trench  and  to  windward  of  it.     Have  the  men  in  the  trenches 
with  sign  "  Wind  dangerous."    Two  men  posted  as  sentries  with 
alarm  signals  conveniently  at  hand.     At  a  signal  from  the  in- 
structor the  gas  will  be  liberated  and  the  alarm  sounded  by  the 
sentries.     Men  in  the  trenches  will  put  on  their  masks  and  man 
the  parapets.    After  the  attack  has  passed  trench  and'  dugout 
will  be  actually  cleared  of  gas. 

3.  Demonstrate  the  protection  afforded  dugouts  by  means  of 
wet  blankets.     Have  men  enter  the  dugout  in  squads  of  four 
and  remove   their  masks.     Masks   should   be   replaced   before 
they  reenter  the  trenches. 

LECTURE  NO.  5  (Fifth  Day). 

THE  CHEMISTRY  OF  GAS  WARFARE. 

As  you  already  know,  gases  are  used  in  modern  warfare  in 
two  different  ways,  namely,  as — 

1.  The  gas  wave  or  cloud. 

2.  In  shells,  bombs,  or  grenades. 

In  order  that  a  gas  may  be  used  in  the  first  way,  namely,  for 
the  purpose  of  the  cloud  offensive,  it  must  possess  certain  defi- 
nite physical  properties. 

(a)  It  must  be  heavy,  so  that  it  will  stay  close  to  the  ground 
and  not  disperse  rapidly,  but  will  fill  up  all  depressions,  such  as 
trenches  and  dugouts. 

(&)  It  must  be  easily  obtainable. 

(c)  It  must  be  easily  liquefiable  and  capable  of  being  trans- 
ported in  suitable  containers. 


35 

GAS  USED  IN  CLOUD  ATTACKS. 

Chlorine  and  phosgene,  either  individually  or  mixed,  are  the 
principal  gases  used  in  attacks  of  this  type.  Bromine  has  been 
used,  but  is  so  corrosive  that  it  is  difficult  to  handle.  Because  it 
is  so  heavy  it  is  frequently  mixed  with  one  or  both  of  the  other 
two  gases. 

PROPERTIES   OF   THESE   GASES. 

Chlorine  is  a  greenish-yellow  gas  with  a  very  irritating  and 
pungent  odor.  It  is  two  and  one-half  times  as  heavy  as  air  and 
can  be  easily  liquefied  and  transported  in  dry  iron  containers. 
It  does  not  attack  iron  when  no  moisture  is  present. 

Phosgene  is  a  colorless  gas  with  an  odor  resembling  that  of 
green  corn  that  has  begun  to  sour.  It  is  slightly  heavier  than 
chlorine  and  irritates  the  throat  in  such  a  manner  as  to  produce 
coughing,  even  though  present  in  very  small  amounts.  It  is  a 
liquid  below  45°  P.,  and  can  also  be  transported  in  dry  iron 
containers. 

Bromine  is  a  reddish-brown  gas,  about  five  and  one-half  times 
as  heavy  as  air  and  is  a  liquid  at  about  43°  F.  It  is  an  intense 
irritant,  producing  severe  burns  of  the  skin  when  in  contact 
with  it.  However,  it  corrodes  metals  very  rapidly  and  because 
of  this  fact  and  its  expense  is  used  only  in  connection  with  one 
or  both  of  the  other  two.  Because  of  its  weight  one  can  readily 
see  what  an  advantage  it  is  when  it  is  mixed  with  others. 

Both  chlorine  and  bromine  are  acid  gases,  and  hence  an  alkali 
is  used  to  combat  them.  This  is  furnished  in  our  mask  by  a 
special  chemical  mixture  of  alkali  substance. 

GASES  USED  IN  SHELLS,  ETC. 

The  gases  in  shells  are  in  some  cases  not  gases  but  liquids, 
which  give  off  varying  amounts  of  vapor  when  spilled  upon  the 
ground.  In  other  cases  they  are  easily  liquefiable  gases.  You 
can  readily  see  that  unless  this  were  the  case  the  amount  of  gas 
that  could  be  sent  to  the  enemy  trench  in  a  shell  would  be  so 
little  as  to  make  the  range  of  effectiveness  very  slight. 

Practically  all  the  lachrymatory  gases  belong  to  the  former 
type — that  is,  they  are  liquids.  These  liquids  spill  around  a 
shell  hole  and  continue  for  weeks  to  give  off  their  irritant  or 
poisonous  vapors,  for  some  of  them  are  toxic  as  well  as  irritant. 


36 

Most  of  these  gases  are  from  liquids  derived  from  bromine  and 
the  various  liquid  distillates  obtained  as  by-products  of  the  coke 
industry. 

Prussic  acid  and  phosgene  are  representatives  of  the  easily 
liquefiable  type.  Prussic  acid  is  a  liquid  below  79°  F.  As  a  gas 
it  is  slightly  heavier  than  air  and  lias  an  odor  resembling  that  of 
bitter  almonds.  A  gas  shell  containing  7  liters  of  liquid  prusslc 
acid  will  liberate  about  200  cubic  feet  of  gas  on  exploding.  This 
is  also  an  acid  gas,  and  is  taken  care  of  by  our  absorber. 

New  gases  are,  however,  being  constantly  devised,  and  all 
countries  have  large  laboratories  ever  at  work  to  devise  new 
gases  and  also  to  devise  new  preventives  against  the  enemy's 


The  detection  of  new  and  unusual  gases  require  constant 
watchfulness  by  troops  at  the  front,  and  for  this  purpose  certain 
men  are  detailed  to  collect  samples  of  gas  after  every  gas  attack, 
either  cloud  or  shell.  These  samples  are  collected  from  the  air 
in  trenches  and  dugouts  by  means  of  vacuum  bulbs  (show  sample 
vacuum  bulb)  or  by  collecting  samples  of  earth  from  shell 
craters  after  a  gas-shell  bombardment.  Samples  so  collected  are 
sent  to  laboratories  in  the  rear,  where  they  are  studied  in  the 
search  for  new  gases.  So  far  the  English  and  American  mask 
has  been  found  proof  against  all  gases  now  in  use,  but  surprise 
is  the  main  feature  in  gas  attacks  and  the  utmost  vigilance  must 
be  maintained  to  detect  the  first  sign  of  new  gases. 

THE  ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  GAS  SERVICE  IN  FOREIGN  ARMIES. 

The  British  gas  service,  upon  which  our  gas  service  is  mod- 
eled, consists  of  a  home  service  and  an  over-seas  service.  Both 
the  home  service  and  the  over-seas  service  are  divided  into  a,n 
offensive  and  a  defensive.  The  offensive  in  England  is  under 
the  direction  of  the  Royal  Engineers,  and  the  defensive  is  under 
the  direction  of  the  Royal  Army  Medical  Corps.  In  our  Army 
the  offensive,  so  far  as  it  concerns  the  production  of  gas  shells, 
etc.,  is  under  the  direction  of  the  Ordnance  Department,  and 
the  defensive,  e.  g.,  gas  masks,  resuscitating  apparatus,  etc., 
is  under  the  direction  of  the  Medical  Department. 

The  gas  work  for  both  departments  in  the  home  territory 
consists  of  research  work  and  providing  of  supplies,  and  this 
must  be  all  done  on  a  la^-ge  scale. 

The  research  work  for  the  Ordnance  Department  concerns 
itself  with  the  devising  of  ever-changing  and  ever  more  poison- 


37 

ous  gases  for  use  in  cloud  attacks,  shells,  and  other  projectiles. 
Research  work  for  the  Medical  Department  concerns  itself  with 
the  devising  of  chemical  preventatives  for  nullifying  the  effect 
of  all  gases  which  the  enemy  may  bring  against  us.  The  supply 
problem  for  the  Ordnance  Department  is  to  produce 'the  proper 
projectiles  in  which  to  deliver  the  offensive  gases ;  that  for  the 
Medical  Department  to  produce  the  paper  devices  to  carry  the 
neutralizing  substances. 

The  research  work,  both  offensive  and  defensive,  is  of  a  chemi- 
cal and  physiological  character  and  requires  the  service  of  a 
large  number  of  scientists  in  those  professions,  whose  whole 
time  must  be  devoted  to  a  constant  study  of  the  various  ele- 
ments entering  into  the  offensive  and  defensive  side  of  gas 
warfare.  .  ' 

In  England  two  laboratories  are  maintained  for  this  purpose — 
one  under  the  engineers  for  the  study  of  offensive  material  and 
another  under  the  medical  department  for  the  study  of  pre- 
ventive material.  In  our  country  we  have  one  large  laboratory 
working  on  both  the  offensive  and  defensive  material  for  both 
the  Army  and  Navy.  The  work  that  this  laboratory  is  called 
upon  to  do  is  enormous,  as  upon  the  chemical  findings  of  the 
laboratory  the  ultimate  success  or  failure  of  gas  warfare  must 
largely  depend. 

ANTI-GAS    DUTIES    WITHIN    AN    INFANTRY    REGIMENT. 

The  gas  service  in  the  field  forms  an  intimate  part  of  all 
tactical  organizations.  Attached  to  each  army  there  is  an 
engineer  brigade  under  command  of  a  general  officer  charged 
with  the  duty  of  making  all  the  gas-cloud  attacks  with  that 
army,  and  a  chemical  adviser  charged  with  all  technical  mat- 
ters regarding  gas  warfare. 

A  special  gas  officer  is  appointed  in  each  division,  so  that 
technical  advice  is  readily  available  on  all  matters  connected 
with  gas  defense.  This  officer  is  also  charged  with  the  instruc- 
tion of  the  divisional  anti-gas  school.  Standing  orders  are  to 
the  effect  that  commanding  officers  will  facilitate  in  every  way 
the  duties  of  the  divisional  gas  officer  in  visiting  their  lines 
and  inspecting  anti-gas  arrangements,  testing  alarms,  etc.  They 
should  take  every  opportunity  of  consulting  with  the  divisional 
gas  officer  on  all  technical  questions  relating  to  gas  defense. 

In  order  that  there  may  be  a  thorough  understanding  in  each 
organization  of  all  matters  pertaining  to  gas  defense,  an  anti-gas 


38 

school  is  established  in  each  division,  and  the  following  officers 
and  noncommissioned  officers  are  required  to  attend  a  course  of 
instruction  at  this  school. 

OFFICERS. 

(a)  The  commanding  officer  or  the  second  in  command  and  a 
medical  officer  from  each  regiment. 
(6)  All  company  commanders, 
(c)  Other  officers  when  possible. 

NONCOMMISSIONED   OFFICERS. 

(a)  Two  per  company. 

(&)  Two  from  headquarters  company. 

(c)  Other  noncommissioned  officers  when  possible. 

ANTI-GAS  DUTIES  WITHIN  AN  INFANTRY  REGIMENT. 

[To  be  modified  for  other  units  to  suit  their  organization  and  duties.] 

The  commanding  officer  is  directly  responsible  for  all  measures 
against  gas  attacks,  and  company  commanders  are  responsible 
to  the  commanding  officer  for  all  anti-gas  measures  within  their 
companies. 

In  each  company  one  noncommissioned  officer  who  has  been 
trained  at  an  anti-gas  school,  and  who  has  been  recommended  by 
the  divisional  gas  officer  as  suitable  for  duty  as  "  Company  gas 
noncommissioned  officer,"  is  specially  detailed  to  assist  the  com- 
pany commander  in  anti-gas  measures.  At  least  one  other  simi- 
larly trained  and  recommended  noncommissioned  officer  should 
be  immediately  available  to  take  the  place  of  the  gas  noncom- 
missioned officer  in  case  of  need. 

A  similarly  trained  noncommissioned  officer  is  detailed  to  regi- 
mental headquarters  for  duty  with  headquarters  details. 

The  special  duties  of  company  gas  noncommissioned  officers 
are  as  follows.  Other  duties  may,  however,  be  performed,  pro- 
vided they  do  not  interfere  with  gas  duties  : 

1.  They  will  assist  officers  at  the  inspection  of  box  respirators 
and  in  making  such  local  repairs  as  possible.    They  will  assist 
in  training  men  in  the  use  of  anti-gas  appliances. 

2.  Under  the  company  commander  they  will  have  charge  of  all 
anti-gas  trench  stores,  as  follows : 


39 

(a)  Strombos  horns  and  other  gas-alarm  devices.  Inspect 
daily  and  see  that  sentries  posted  to  them  know  how  they  should 
be  used. 

( 6 )  Gas-proof  shelters. — See  that  the  blanket  doorways  fit  and 
are  kept  in  good  order. 

(c)  Anti-gas  fans. — See  that  they  are  in  their  proper  position 
and  in  serviceable  condition. 

(d)  Stores  of  fuel  for  cleaning  shelter. — Insure  sufficient  sup- 
ply for  clearing  dugouts,  to  be  maintained  under  company  ar- 
rangements. 

(e)  Vermorcl  sprayers. — Maintain  in  working  order  and  see 
that  supply  of  solution  is  available. 

(/)  Gas-sampling  apparatus. — Have  charge  of  the  vacuum 
bulbs  and  gas-testing  tubes.  Keep  a  stock  of  corked  bottles  and 
small  tins  with  well-fitting  lids  for  collecting  samples  of  earth 
and  water  after  a  gas-shell  attack. 

3.  On  relief  they  will  assist  the  company  commander  in  taking 
over  all  anti-gas  trench  stores.     The  gas  company  noncommis- 
sioned officers  should  accompany  the  advance  party  and  take 
over  anti-gas  trench  stores  (by  daylight  if  possible). 

4.  They  will  make  wind  observations  every  three  hours,  or 
more  frequently  if  the  wind  is  in  or-nearing  a  dangerous  quarter, 
and  will  report  any  change  of  wind  to  the  company  commander. 

5.  During  a  gas-cloud  attack  they  will  take  gas  samples  by 
means  of  the  vacuum  bulbs  and  gas-testing  tubes. 

6.  During  or  after  the  attack  the  noncommissioned  officer  must 
note  down  in  writing  as  much  information  regarding  the  attack 
as  possible. 

7.  As  soon  as  possible  after  the  conclusion  of  a  gas-shell  bom- 
bardment, the  gas  noncommissioned  officer  must  fill  his  bottles 
and  tins  (two)  and  take  samples  of  water,  mud,  or  earth  from 
those  parts  of  the  line  which  are  smelling  most  strongly  of  shell 
gases.     He  should  note  the  position  of  any  blind  shells. 

8.  As  soon  as  possible  after  a  gas  attack,  all  samples  and  notes 
will  be  handed  in  to  the  company  commander  for  transmission  to 
the  divisional  gas  officer. 

PRACTICAL  INSTRUCTION  (Fifth  Day). 

1.  Repeaj;  gas-mask  drill  in  its  various  forms. 

2.  Practical  demonstration  of  lachrymatory  gas  in  shell  crater. 
(Pour  ?P5J?  benzyl  chloride  in  hole  previously  prepared. )     Then 


40 

demonstrate  method  of  filling  shell  craters  to  destroy  effects  oj 
gas. 

3.  Familiarity  with  the  smell  of  phosgene.  (Liberate  a  small 
quantity  of  phosgene  under  a  closed  tent. )  Have  each  man  pull 
back  the  flap  and  smell  the  phosgene. 

(Sixth  Day.) 

General  review  of  the  subjects  taught  during  the  week.  J$ 
short  written  quiz  is  usually  advisable  for  officer. 


o 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 
STAMPED  BELOW 

AN  INITIAL  PINE  OP  25  CENTS 

WILL  BE  ASSESSED  FOR  FAILURE  TO  RETURN 
THIS  BOOK  ON  THE  DATE  DUE.  THE  PENALTY 
WILL  INCREASE  TO  SO  CENTS  ON  THE  FOURTH 
DAY  AND  TO  $1.OO  ON  THE  SEVENTH  DAY 
OVERDUE. 


JfiN 


V-r 


664369 


'  '  T""  ^- 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  UBRARY 


